Figure 1: Charge characteristics of a NiCd cell.
Charge efficiency is high up to 70% SoC and then charge acceptances drops. NiMH is similar to NiCd. Charge efficiency measures the battery’s ability to accept charge and has similarities with coulombic efficiency.
Learn how to maximize charge, minimize heat and reduce memory.
Battery manufacturers recommend that new batteries be slow-charged for 16–24 hours before use. A slow charge brings all cells in a battery pack to an equal charge level. This is important because each cell within the nickel-cadmium battery may have self-discharged at its own rate. Furthermore, during long storage the electrolyte tends to gravitate to the bottom of the cell and the initial slow charge helps in the redistribution to eliminate dry spots on the separator. (See also BU-803a: Loss of Electrolyte.)
Battery manufacturers do not fully format nickel- and lead-based batteries before shipment. The cells reach optimal performance after priming that involves several charge/discharge cycles. This is part of normal use; it can also be done with a battery analyzer. Quality cells are known to perform to full specifications after only 5–7 cycles; others may take 50–100 cycles. Peak capacity occurs between 100–300 cycles, after which the performance starts to drop gradually.
Most rechargeable cells include a safety vent that releases excess pressure if incorrectly charged. The vent on a NiCd cell opens at 1,000–1,400kPa (150–200psi). Pressure released through a re-sealable vent causes no damage; however, with each venting event some electrolyte escapes and the seal may begin to leak. The formation of a white powder at the vent opening makes this visible. Multiple venting eventually results in a dry-out condition. A battery should never be stressed to the point of venting.
Full-charge Detection by Temperature
Full-charge detection of sealed nickel-based batteries is more complex than that of lead acid and lithium-ion. Low-cost chargers often use temperature sensing to end the fast charge, but this can be inaccurate. The core of a cell is several degrees warmer than the skin where the temperature is measured, and the delay that occurs causes over-charge. Charger manufacturers use 50°C (122°F) as temperature cut-off. Although any prolonged temperature above 45°C (113°F) is harmful to the battery, a brief overshoot is acceptable as long as the battery temperature drops quickly when the “ready” light appears.
Advanced chargers no longer rely on a fixed temperature threshold but sense the rate of temperature increase over time, also known as delta temperature over delta time, or dT/dt. Rather than waiting for an absolute temperature to occur, dT/dt uses the rapid temperature increase towards the end of charge to trigger the “ready” light. The delta temperature method keeps the battery cooler than a fixed temperature cut-off, but the cells need to charge reasonably fast to trigger the temperature rise. Charge termination occurs when the temperature rises 1°C (1.8°F) per minute. If the battery cannot achieve the needed temperature rise, an absolute temperature cut-off set to 60°C (140°F) terminates the charge.
Chargers relying on temperature inflict harmful overcharges when a fully charged battery is repeatedly removed and reinserted. This is the case with chargers in vehicles and desktop stations where a two-way radio is being detached with each use. Reconnection initiates a new charge cycle that requires reheating of the battery.
Li ion systems have an advantage in that voltage governs state-of-charge. Reinserting a fully charged Li-ion battery immediately pushes the voltage to the full-charge threshold, the current drops and the charger turns off shortly without needing to create a temperature signature.
Full-charge Detection by Voltage Signature
Advanced chargers terminate charge when a defined voltage signature occurs. This provides a more precise full-charge detection of nickel-based batteries than temperature-based methods. The charger looks for a voltage drop that occurs when the battery has reached full charge. This method is callednegative delta V (NDV).
NDV is the recommended full-charge detection method for chargers applying a charge rate of 0.3C and higher. It offers a quick response time and works well with a partially or fully charged battery. When inserting a fully charged battery, the terminal voltage rises quickly and then drops sharply to trigger the ready state. The charge lasts only a few minutes and the cells remain cool. NiCd chargers with NDV detection typically respond to a voltage drop of 5mV per cell.
To achieve a reliable voltage signature, the charge rate must be 0.5C and higher. Slower charging produces a less defined voltage drop, especially if the cells are mismatched in which case each cell reaches full charge at a different time point. To assure reliable full-charge detection, most NDV chargers also use a voltage plateau detector that terminates the charge when the voltage remains in a steady state for a given time. These chargers also include delta temperature, absolute temperature and a time-out timer.
Fast charging improves the charge efficiency. At 1C charge rate, the efficiency of a standard NiCd is 91 percent and the charge time is about an hour (66 minutes at 91 percent). On a slow charger, the efficiency drops to 71 percent, prolonging the charge time to about 14 hours at 0.1C.
During the first 70 percent of charge, the efficiency of a NiCd is close to 100 percent. The battery absorbs almost all energy and the pack remains cool. NiCd batteries designed for fast charging can be charged with currents that are several times the C-rating without extensive heat buildup. In fact, NiCd is the only battery that can be ultra-fast charged with minimal stress. Cells made for ultra-fast charging can be charged to 70 percent in minutes.
Figure 1 shows the relationship of cell voltage, pressure and temperature of a charging NiCd. Everything goes well up to about 70 percent charge, when charge efficiency drops. The cells begin to generate gases, the pressure rises and the temperature increases rapidly. To reduce battery stress, some chargers lower the charge rate past the 70 percent mark.
Charge characteristics of a NiCd cell
Figure 1: Charge characteristics of a NiCd cell.
Charge efficiency is high up to 70% SoC and then charge acceptances drops. NiMH is similar to NiCd. Charge efficiency measures the battery’s ability to accept charge and has similarities with coulombic efficiency.
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