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ABSTRACT Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are the most widely used rechargeable energy storage systems. However, the future expanding of the LIB technology is limited due to the high cost and scarcity of both core elements of lithium and cobalt. The use of cheap earth-abundant metals such as sodium, aluminum, potassium, calcium, and magnesium in their corresponding metal-based batteries which working on the same principle as LIBs, would greatly reduce the cost of battery technology. Nevertheless, despite the economic advantage of production process, the large-scale production of these metal-based batteries have been limited by their lower gravimetric and volumetric energy densities. Rechargeable seawater batteries (SWBs) are regarded as sustainable alternatives to Li-ion batteries due to the use of an unlimited and free source of Na ion active materials. Although many approaches including the introduction of new catalysts have successfully improved the performance of SWBs, reconsidering the cell design is an urgent requirement to improve the performance and scale up the production of practical batteries. In this study, by adjusting the maximum space efficiency, a rectangular cell is developed which due to its unique architecture, benefits from optimized contact to improve the overall charge transfer in the system. In view of the rigidity of the solid electrolyte, the novel cell model is intended to have adequate flexibility to be easily transported and practically utilized. At the same time as the development of the cell platform, energy efficiency was also improved by improving the materials and assembly methods for each part of the seawater battery, which will be an indicator for future battery development. Furthermore, the enhanced efficiency of the parallel stacked modules, indicates the capability of this cell in practical use. The seawater battery module was actually operated in the ocean to prove its potential, and an automated pilot design for uniform cell production was also carried out. The designed catalyst-free cell system shows a record capacity of 3.8 Ah (47.5 Ah kg−1), energy of 11 Wh (137.5 Wh kg−1), and peak power of 523 mW for individual unit cell, while it also retains performance up to 100 cycles. This design paves the way for commercializing rechargeable seawater batteries.
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